This timeline is a living document based on independent research, archived sources, audio and video content and human memory. We make no claim to depict any particular history and have chosen past events and figures for their relevance to the story of the Competent Learner Model. If you feel we have gotten something wrong, missed something important, or have a general comment about the events and people depicted in this timeline, please contact us at info@thecompetentlearnermodel.org.
In 1897 Ivan Pavlov publishes his most important research, detailing his findings on classical conditioning, in 1897 in a book titled "Lectures on the Work of the Digestive Glands".
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist during the late 19th century who contributed greatly to the behavioral school of psychology. This is because he was the first to show that classical conditioning was possible, and he did so using dogs.
Read more about Pavlov’s work and its pioneering relationship to the science of Applied Behavior Analysis here:
https://www.nobelprize.org/
In 1913 John B. Watson gives the address, “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” at Columbia University, setting the stage for behaviorism to become an established psychological school of thought.
Read more about Watson’s work here:
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/
and some context on his most famous experiment
Vicci Tucci was born in Weston, West Virginia. This is the same year B.F. Skinner publishes “The Case for Radical Behaviorism”.
Skinner delivers a seminal lecture at Harvard, presenting his ideas on applying behaviorist principles to education. He criticized traditional teaching methods for being inefficient and failing to provide immediate feedback.
Vicci Tucci drew heavily from Skinner’s foundational ideas of operant conditioning and programmed learning to design educational systems and tools that focus on individualized instruction and reinforcement. In fact her Competent Learner Model Course of Study, the practitioner training component of the CLM was a shining example of a SkinnerianTeaching Machine. Julie Vargas, daughter of Bf Skinner and a behavior scientist in her own right, praised Tucci’s work on the Course of Study as an accurate and fully expressed reflection of her father’s work. Tucci’s Competent Learner Model as a complete educational framework can be seen as a modern, dynamic application of the principles Skinner introduced with his teaching machine.
B.F. Skinner’s Teaching Machine was a mechanical device designed to facilitate programmed learning, a concept Skinner developed based on his behaviorist principles. It was first introduced in the 1950s, with significant developments occurring around 1954.
Purpose:
The teaching machine was designed to:
Key Features of Skinner’s Teaching Machine:
Key Ways Tucci Incorporated Skinner’s Principles:
1. Sequential and Individualized Learning:
• Tucci’s Competent Learner Model (CLM), like Skinner’s teaching machine, emphasizes breaking down complex skills into small, manageable steps.
• Learners progress at their own pace, mastering each step before moving on, consistent with the concept of programmed instruction.
2. Active Participation and Feedback:
• CLM encourages active learner participation through structured tasks and exercises, ensuring learners are engaged and not passive recipients of information.
• Immediate feedback, a cornerstone of Skinner’s teaching machine, is central to CLM. Reinforcement is provided promptly to strengthen desired behaviors and learning outcomes.
3. Behavioral Objectives:
• Tucci, like Skinner, emphasizes clearly defined behavioral goals. CLM focuses on teaching competencies (e.g., problem-solving, communication) that are measurable and observable.
4. Technology Integration:
• Tucci shared with Skinner a lifelong passion for the integration of technology with state of the art teaching methods. This formed the basis for many robust collaborations such as her work with Kent Johnson on Precision Teaching and Application Based fluency practice.
B.F. Skinner initially viewed punishment as a viable tool for behavior modification, but over time, his perspective evolved significantly, becoming increasingly skeptical of its effectiveness and advocating more strongly for the use of positive reinforcement instead, believing punishment often led to undesirable side effects like avoidance behaviors and did not effectively teach desired behaviors in the long run.
Vicci Tucci studied and understood the decades long evolution of Skinner’s position on punishment and the more efficacious theory of positive reinforcement. It is important to note that Vicci’s work from the very beginning was grounded only in positive reinforcement and that she began her work in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis in the same place at which it had taken Skinner decades to arrive.
She began reading Skinner’s work as a graduate student and credits his 1957 work “Verbal Behavior” as being one of the foundations for her development of the Competent Learner Model.
In 1968, The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) is founded, further cementing ABA as a distinct field.
Precision Teaching (PT), a teaching methodology rooted in B.F. Skinner’s work on behavioral psychology and teaching machines, emerged in the 1960s and became one of the three pillars of the Competent Learner Model alongside Direct Instruction and Applied Behavior Analysis.
PT emphasizes fluency, defined as a combination of accuracy and speed, and relies on data-driven decision-making and individualized instruction to enhance learning outcomes.
Vicci Tucci, Precision Teaching and the Competent Learner Model (CLM)
Vicci Tucci’s Competent Learner Model (CLM), incorporates Precision Teaching principles with applied behavior analysis (ABA). Her contributions to PT include:
1. Competent Learner Repertoires:
• The CLM focuses on developing seven core “competent learner repertoires”: observer, listener, talker, reader, writer, problem-solver, and participator.
• PT is used to measure and build fluency in these repertoires, ensuring learners acquire skills that lead to independence and functional competence.
2. Integration with ABA and PT:
• Tucci’s model bridges applied behavior analysis (ABA) and PT, emphasizing observable, measurable outcomes.
• CLM relies on PT tools, such as the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC), to monitor progress and adapt teaching strategies based on learner performance.
3. Focus on Educators and Caregivers:
• Tucci designed the CLM to be practical for teachers, parents, and caregivers, ensuring that interventions can be implemented consistently across environments.
• Her model includes extensive training materials and resources, making PT accessible to non-specialists.
4. Special Education Applications:
• CLM is particularly impactful in special education settings, supporting students with autism, developmental disabilities, and other learning challenges.
• The model emphasizes building fluency and functional skills, helping learners transition to more independent and productive lives.
Legacy:
Vicci Tucci’s work demonstrates the versatility of PT when combined with ABA, creating a comprehensive system that addresses both academic and life skills. Her focus on practical implementation has expanded PT’s reach to educators and families.
Kent Johnson was an early supporter of Vicci Tucci’s work. They enjoyed a robust collaborative relationship over many decades. He and Vicci Tucci are significant contributors to the evolution of Precision Teaching (PT) through their respective educational models and approaches. Both have enriched PT by integrating it with other evidence-based practices and creating systems for applying PT principles in diverse learning contexts.
1. Fluency Building:
• PT emphasizes not just accuracy but also speed and ease of responding, which leads to better retention, endurance, and application of skills.
2. The Standard Celeration Chart:
• A central tool for charting progress and making data-driven decisions. It allows educators to detect trends quickly and adjust instruction accordingly.
3. Focus on Behavior:
• PT targets observable and measurable behaviors, making progress clear and actionable.
4. Learner-Centered Approach:
• Students are active participants in their learning process, often tracking their own progress and aiming to surpass personal benchmarks.
Impact and Applications
• PT has been used extensively in special education, literacy, numeracy, and even physical skills.
• It has influenced broader educational practices, such as Response to Intervention (RTI) frameworks and mastery learning.
In summary, Precision Teaching revolutionized educational practices by integrating behavioral science with practical, individualized instruction. Its legacy continues to shape modern approaches to learning and performance improvement.
This publication directly drives the deinstitutionalization movement that was the foundation for Vicci’s early work with adult learners in the Central Valley of California.
During the Christmas season of 1965, Burton Blatt was a participant in a research project at a Connecticut center for the developmentally disabled when he undertook a bold venture. He and his friend, photographer Fred Kaplan, gained access to five state institutions for the developmentally disabled in four eastern states. Unbeknownst to the staff at these institutions, Fred Kaplan carried a miniature spy camera on his belt and secretly snapped pictures as they toured the back wards of the facilities.
Moved to despair over what they had seen and documented, the two men self-published Christmas in Purgatory in 1966. They printed one thousand copies and distributed them, free of charge, to legislators, university professors, and the fledgling mental health advocacy groups of the time. It was the first time many Americans had seen the horrors of institutional life, and response to the book was so remarkable Christmas in Purgatory was selected for print by Allyn and Bacon publishers later that year.
To protect those affiliated with their project, Burton Blatt and Fred Kaplan never disclosed the names of the institutions they visited. The conditions depicted in Christmas in Purgatory are common wherever people are housed in institutions.
1968: Project Follow Through, the largest educational experiment in U.S. history, began as an effort to evaluate various educational models to improve outcomes for disadvantaged children. Jack Engelmann’s Direct Instruction (DI) Model is included as one of the methods tested.
1968-1977: Engelmann’s DI model consistently outperformed other educational approaches in areas such as reading, mathematics, and language skills, based on measurable academic outcomes.
1977: Final results of Project Follow Through are published, confirming that Direct Instruction was the most effective method for improving both academic achievement and self-esteem in students.
This period solidified the effectiveness of Engelmann’s approach and brought widespread attention to Direct Instruction as a powerful educational tool.
"I grew up next door to a hospital, a state hospital in West Virginia. My mother was really good about teaching us that the people in the hospital were just people. And, of course, everybody else in town was afraid of them, but we learned not to be. And so it was real easy for me when I became a behavior analyst and my first job out of graduate school - because I’d worked at that hospital.” ~Vicci Tucci
Vicci graduates from West Virginia University, with a B.A. in Psychology.
"Vicci let passion lead her entire career."~ Cathy Scutta
Vicci receives a Masters of Arts in Psychology from University of the Pacific, with concentration in Applied Behavior Analysis.
Vicci begins her first post graduation job. Listen to her tell the story.
As the deinstitutionalization movement gathers momentum, Vicci works with the Manteca CAPS program to transition formerly institutionalized persons to life in the community. Now known as Valley CAPS, here is some of the history of this organization:
In 1976, three Manteca residents, led by Alice Valverde, met to plan for the future of their children. They had a common interest: each one had an adult child with developmental disabilities. They approached the Manteca Kiwanis Club who after listening to their needs, gave the parents of these children $3,000 in seed money to help begin their dream of having a safe, loving environment from which their children could grow and develop those skills needed to become happy and productive members of our society.
Nearly forty-five years later, Valley CAPS (Center for Advanced Personal Success) operates five adult day programs throughout California’s Central Valley. Valley CAPS is proud to be a leading Day Program provider for adults living with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDDs) while maintaining a steadfast commitment to the founder's original mission statement, “Create a program that provides a safe, nurturing environment from which individuals with Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities can grow and develop the needed skills, on their terms, to become happy and productive members of society.”
Valley CAPS provides a place for adults to participate in life and independent living skills, engage in social activities in the community, and participate in determining their future “on their terms.”
Our dedicated team of employees works with each consumer to embrace and foster their pursuit of growth, independence, dignity, and choice.
Vicci moves to California’s Central Coast and begins to immerse herself in classroom work at Monterey County Schools. During this time she further identifies the NEED for curriculum for learners and a concurrent need for training resources for teachers and staff.
It was out of this work with MCOE that Tucci Learning Solutions was born and the Competent Learner Model began to take concrete shape as a framework of individualized instructional tools for learners and training materials for educational staff and parents.
In the first of many co-authored articles, Vicci and Daniel Hursh publish “Developing Competent Learners by Arranging Effective Environments”, in Behavior Analysis in Education from the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.
In “Developing Competent Learners by Arranging Effective Environments,” Tucci and Hursh explore how environmental design influences student learning and competence.
This statement was another foundational text for Vicci in her development of the CLM. Read a three part series on how this statement intersects with the CLM, written by Tucci Learning Solution’s Director of Staff Development and Certified CLM Coach, Rae-Ann Arevelo, here:
This statement was abstracted from a report by the Association for Behavior Analysis Task Force on the Right to Effective Education [members: B. H. Barret (chair), R. Beck, C. Binder, D. A. Cook, S. Engelmann, R. D. Greer, S. J. Kyrklund, K. R. Johnson, M. Maloney, N. McCorkle, J. S. Vargas, and C. L. Watkins].
The full report of the Task Force was accepted by the ABA Executive Council and was published in The Behavior Analyst, 1991, Volume 14(1). This abbreviated statement was subsequently approved by majority vote of the general membership. It now constitutes official ABA policy.
The 1991 publication titled “Competent Learner Model: Instructional Programming for Teachers and Learners”, by Vicci Tucci and Daniel E. Hursh, is a peer-reviewed journal article that appeared in the November 1991 issue of Education and Treatment of Children (Volume 14, Number 4, pages 349-360).
In this article, the authors introduce the Competent Learner Model (CLM), which integrates direct instruction and behavior analysis practices to help teachers master the formulation, delivery, and monitoring of effective instructional programming. The model emphasizes developing essential learner repertoires and employs a coaching format to ensure the success of both teachers and learners.
In the 1994 publication, “Behavior Analysis in Education: Focus on Measurably Superior Instruction”, Vicci Tucci, along with Daniel E. Hursh, contributed the chapter titled “Developing Competent Learners by Arranging Effective Learning Environments.”
In this chapter, they introduced the Competent Learner Model (CLM), which integrates principles from Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), Direct Instruction (DI), and Precision Teaching (PT) to develop essential learner repertoires. The CLM emphasizes creating effective learning environments that foster the development of skills such as observing, listening, participating, problem-solving, and communicating. By focusing on these competencies, Tucci and Hursh aimed to equip learners with the tools necessary for success across various educational settings.
Vicci Tucci contributes to the joining of the Northern and Southern California ABA organizations and helps create the California State ABA Credential, which becomes the national standard for the Behavior Analyst Certification Board.
The BACB introduces the first national certification exam for behavior analysts.
The Temple University study demonstrated the effectiveness of the Competent Learner Model over other ABA models prevalent at the time. Presented at ABAI.
Chapter 8 of “Evidence-Based Educational Methods” (2004), authored by Vicci Tucci, Daniel E. Hursh, and Richard E. Laitinen, is titled “The Competent Learner Model: A Merging of Applied Behavior Analysis, Direct Instruction, and Precision Teaching.” This chapter introduces the Competent Learner Model (CLM), an educational framework that integrates principles from Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), Direct Instruction (DI), and Precision Teaching (PT) to enhance student learning outcomes.
The chapter outlines the components of the CLM, including a course of study, coaching, and collaborative consultation, and presents evidence supporting its effectiveness in various educational settings. The integration of these evidence-based methods seeks to create a comprehensive instructional model that addresses diverse learner needs.
In the 2005 article “Competent Learner Model for Individuals With Autism/PDD,” published in Exceptionality, the authors, Tucci, Hursh, Laitinen, and Lambe introduced the Competent Learner Model (CLM), as an educational framework designed to enhance learning outcomes for individuals with developmental disabilities, including autism. The article outlines the components of the CLM, emphasizing its basis in applied behavior analysis and its provision of empirically based assessment, instruction, and evaluation for students with developmental disabilities.
The journal Exceptionality serves as a platform for presenting current research and professional scholarship in special education. It encompasses a wide range of scholarly works, including quantitative, qualitative, and single-subject research designs, literature reviews, discussion pieces, invited works, position papers, theoretical papers, policy analyses, and research syntheses. The journal’s scope covers various areas of special education, providing a comprehensive forum for scholarly discourse.
The Future Rehabilitation Centre in the United Arab Emirates becomes the first organization outside the United States to be licensed to use the Competent Learner Model Curriculum.
The Monterey County Weekly publishes an article on the robust collaboration between Vicci Tucci and the Monterey County Office of Education.
Vicci Tucci, president of Tucci Learning Solutions, presents RIU6 Board President, Julie Hartley (Clarion Area School District, Clarion, Pennsylvania), with the accreditation plaque. “RIU6 made the investment in CLM and in the education of learners with ASD and it’s proven to be worthwhile,” said Tucci. “There are 24 out of 29 intermediate units in Pennsylvania currently participating in the CLM, but RIU6 is the first to be accredited and only the third organization worldwide to receive this honor.”
The CLM is featured in a new textbook from Sloan Publishing – Behavior Analysis for Lasting Change. Not only is the CLM talked about within the text, but the online supplemental video materials included with the textbook purchase feature some of the video examples included in our CLM Course of Study.
Special thanks to G. Roy Mayer for his contributions to the foundations of the CLM and for including us in this publication.
Link: RIU6 Autism Support Services
Vicci Tucci had a lifelong fascination with technology and learning. The development and release of her online Course of Study was built using the principles of Skinner’s Teaching Machine. The release of the Course of Study realized her dream of education and behavioral health professionals' ability to access the training component for the Competent Learner Model from anywhere at any time. This release supported the ability of the Competent Learner Model to be globally implemented.
The heart of behavior analysis lies in designing and implementing effective contingencies to address socially significant behaviors - a concept deeply rooted in B.F. Skinner’s pioneering work on operant conditioning. Skinner demonstrated how behavior could be shaped and maintained through the systematic use of contingencies, emphasizing the relationship between actions and their consequences. Vicci Tucci’s “Selecting and Designing Contingencies” manual builds on that foundation, compiling evidence-based practices designed to foster ethical changes in undesirable behaviors.
A user-friendly, one-page quick reference guide or “cheat sheet” directs providers through key questions to identify the most suitable contingencies for each situation. Each contingency description is designed for client-specific customization, ensuring ethical standards are upheld while enhancing precision in intervention selection and delivery. This personalized approach reflects Vicci’s emphasis on the individualized application of behavior principles to achieve meaningful, lasting change.
The manual is available at the eLearning Store in English and Spanish:
Selecting & Designing Contingencies in English
Selecting & Designing Contingencies in Spanish
A California law, Senate Bill 946, officially took effect, requiring health insurance plans to cover behavioral health treatments, including ABA therapy, for individuals with ASD
California was mid-pack in passing this legislation. Indiana was first in 2001 and the State of Washington was last in 2018.
This law has a huge impact on Tucci Learning Solutions' ability to provide evidence based ABA services that families can access.
Vicci Tucci and Kent Johnson publish the first version of the Fluency Flashcards.
Washington Elementary in Lynwood implements the CLM to better serve students with autism, focusing on building both academic and life skills. Educators report remarkable progress, with students exhibiting improved communication, socialization, and behavioral regulation. Notable success stories include Michelle, who transitioned from self-injurious behaviors to verbal communication and peer engagement, and James, who significantly reduced disruptive behaviors and made academic gains.
The Competent Learner Model’s success is widely recognized by school administrators, parents, and the Lynwood Unified School District (LUSD) Board of Education, reinforcing CLM’s role in fostering meaningful student growth. As educators continue to implement and refine CLM strategies, the model’s impact on student development remains clear.
The BACB introduces certification for Registered Behavior Technicians (RBT), supporting paraprofessionals in implementing ABA interventions.
Vicci continues to develop innovative products for Competent Learner Model implementers. This platform is continually updated and used by CLMers in the US and around the world.
The CLMMIS (Competent Learner Model Management Information System) is a centralized online platform that provides learner program team members with secure access to all aspects of a learner’s individualized treatment plan. Designed for CLM ABA programs, it facilitates progress tracking through tools like the Competent Learner Repertoire Assessment (CLRA), reinforcer surveys, a scoped and sequenced curriculum, placement tests, job aids, and data collection.
This HIPAA-compliant system allows administrators, team members, and families to monitor student progress. Additionally, Tucci Learning Solutions’ Worksheets for Selecting and Designing Contingencies are embedded within CLMMIS to support effective treatment implementation.
ABTI is a licensed CLM implementation with the mission of creating a culture of compassion and empowerment for all persons impacted by developmental disabilities and their families, caregivers, educators, and the community at large.
Empowering Lives with Early Behavioral Intervention Training Courses
The Competent Learner Model Center of Excellence is formed and is dedicated to the global dissemination of the CLM.
Vicci Tucci and Kent Johnson (Morningside Academy) collaborate on the ABAI presentation “Designing Classroom Environments to Produce Generative Behavior” November 2017
Release of the Fluency Flashcards App
Vicci Tucci presents the Competent Learner Model in China at the International Symposium on Rehabilitation and Advocacy for Autism.
FFC introduced at ABAI symposium featuring Vicci and Kent Johnson.
Fluency Flash Cards introduced at ABAI symposium featuring Vicci and Kent Johnson.
Here is a tribute to life and work by her colleagues, Joyce Tu and Allison Moore, at the annual CAL ABA meeting which happened shortly after her death:
Vicci Tucci’s long time dream comes to fruition as The University of West Virginia in collaboration with The CLM Center of Excellence launches its CLM Microcredential series through it’s WVU Mountaineer Micro Academy.
Funding for this initiative is provided by Tucci Learning Solutions per Vicci’s instructions before her death.
